Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest and most diverse religious traditions, which creates an immediate problem for anyone trying to explain it in a few pages. There’s no single founder comparable to Jesus, Muhammad, or the Buddha, no single historical event that marks its beginning, and no universally binding creed that tells us exactly what every Hindu must believe. What we call Hinduism is really a vast family of religious and philosophical traditions that developed primarily on the Indian subcontinent over thousands of years. Even defining Hinduism has proved difficult because Hindu communities differ substantially in their beliefs, practices, deities, philosophies, and ways of understanding ultimate reality. Pluralism Project
That diversity is important. One Hindu may worship Vishnu, another Shiva, and another the Goddess. One may understand the divine in highly personal terms, while another may emphasize an ultimate reality beyond ordinary categories of personality. Some Hindu philosophers teach that the deepest self and ultimate reality are ultimately nondual; others insist that the individual soul and God remain distinct. So when somebody tells you, “Hindus believe…,” it’s usually a good idea to wait and see what comes after the sentence.
An Ancient Religion Without a Founder
The roots of Hinduism reach deep into ancient Indian history. The earliest sacred literature associated with the tradition is found in the Vedas, composed orally in Sanskrit and preserved through highly disciplined traditions of memorization and recitation. Later Vedic literature included the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, while additional traditions developed through philosophical schools, epic literature, devotional movements, temple worship, and countless regional practices. Pluralism Project
The word Hinduism itself came into widespread use relatively late. The traditions grouped beneath that name are much older than the label. This is one reason many Hindus also speak of Sanatana Dharma, often translated as the “eternal way” or “eternal order.” Hinduism didn’t begin one afternoon when somebody announced that a new religion had been founded. It accumulated, developed, debated, absorbed, and reinterpreted traditions over many centuries.
That makes studying Hinduism fascinating—and occasionally frustrating. Christianity has disagreements among Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Pentecostals, Baptists, Presbyterians, and plenty of others, but they can at least argue about the meaning of a common historical figure named Jesus. Hinduism gives us diversity on an entirely different scale.
The Sacred Texts
Hinduism has an enormous body of sacred literature rather than one book corresponding neatly to the Bible or Quran. The Vedas occupy a foundational place and consist of four major collections: the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Associated with the Vedas are the Upanishads, philosophical texts that explore profound questions concerning the self, ultimate reality, consciousness, and liberation. Pluralism Project
Other enormously influential works include the Mahabharata and Ramayana, two great Sanskrit epics. Embedded within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita, or “Song of the Lord,” perhaps the Hindu scripture best known outside India. It presents a conversation between the warrior Arjuna and Krishna on the eve of battle, exploring duty, action, knowledge, devotion, and liberation. Pluralism Project
That last detail surprises a lot of Western readers. One of Hinduism’s most beloved spiritual texts doesn’t begin with somebody peacefully meditating beside a river. It begins with a warrior having a moral crisis because he’s about to fight a battle.
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
One of the most important concepts in Hindu philosophy is Brahman, the ultimate reality underlying existence. Unfortunately for English speakers encountering Hinduism for the first time, Brahman shouldn’t be confused with Brahma, a deity, or Brahmin, traditionally the priestly social class. Three similar-looking words can mean three substantially different things. Hindu vocabulary apparently decided beginners needed a challenge.
The Upanishads probe the relationship between Brahman and Atman, the deepest self. Some famous passages point toward a profound unity between Atman and Brahman. But my old 2015 article went too far when it presented the identity of the individual soul and Brahman as though that were simply the Hindu position. Different schools of Vedanta disagree precisely over this question. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes nonduality; other Vedanta traditions maintain qualified forms of unity or a genuine distinction between God and the individual soul. Pluralism Project
That distinction matters because Hinduism can’t simply be summarized as “everything is God.” Some Hindu philosophies can sound remarkably close to that formulation, while strongly devotional Hindu traditions involve a very personal relationship between worshiper and deity.
How Many Gods Are There?
Here’s another question that becomes complicated very quickly. Hinduism is famous for its many deities, including Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Rama, Ganesha, Lakshmi, Durga, and Kali. Walk through a Hindu temple and nobody could blame a Christian visitor for initially concluding that Hinduism is simply polytheistic.
But many Hindus wouldn’t describe their faith that way.
Some understand the many divine forms as manifestations or expressions of one supreme divine reality. Others center their devotion upon one supreme personal deity while recognizing other divine beings. Still other Hindu philosophical traditions approach ultimate reality in ways that don’t fit comfortably into Western categories of either monotheism or polytheism.
Three particularly important devotional traditions are Vaishnavism, centered upon Vishnu and his manifestations such as Krishna and Rama; Shaivism, centered upon Shiva; and Shaktism, centered upon the Goddess or divine feminine power. These traditions became increasingly prominent during the first millennium A.D. and developed extensive bodies of theology, worship, literature, and ritual. Pluralism Project
So asking, “Is Hinduism monotheistic or polytheistic?” may produce an unsatisfying answer: it depends on which Hindu tradition you’re talking about and what you mean by those words.
Dharma
One of Hinduism’s most important concepts is dharma, and there isn’t a single English word that captures it very well. Dharma can involve duty, righteousness, moral order, religious obligation, and the proper way of living according to one’s place and circumstances. The underlying idea is connected with what sustains or upholds the proper order of things. Pluralism Project
Dharma can therefore concern everything from religious practices to family responsibilities and ethical behavior. Historically it has also been connected with social roles, stages of life, and the complex system of varna and jati that became associated with what Westerners commonly call the caste system. Hindu traditions have interpreted and challenged these social arrangements in different ways, and modern India legally prohibits caste discrimination, but caste has played an undeniable role in the history of Hindu society.
The important point for understanding the religion is that Hindu spirituality isn’t necessarily about withdrawing from ordinary responsibilities. Fulfilling one’s responsibilities can itself become part of the religious life.
Karma and Samsara
We’ve already encountered karma and samsara in Buddhism, but both concepts also play enormously important roles in Hindu traditions. Karma literally concerns action and the consequences produced by action. It’s not simply fate, luck, or the universe arranging for somebody who treated you badly to get a speeding ticket on the way home. Hindu teachings about karma emphasize that actions have consequences that help shape one’s continuing existence. Pluralism Project
Samsara is the continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Karma helps determine the circumstances within that continuing cycle, which means that death doesn’t necessarily settle the human predicament. A new existence continues the process.
That can initially sound appealing to Westerners who encounter reincarnation as the possibility of getting another chance at life. Hinduism generally presents the situation rather differently. Being born again and again isn’t ultimately the prize.
The goal is to get out.
Moksha: Liberation
Moksha means liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirth. This is one of the great goals of Hindu religious life. But because Hinduism contains different understandings of God, the self, and ultimate reality, liberation isn’t described identically by every tradition.
For some schools, moksha involves realizing the true relationship between Atman and Brahman. In Advaita Vedanta, this involves awakening to their ultimate nonduality. Other Vedanta schools understand the relationship differently, including traditions in which the liberated soul maintains a meaningful distinction from God. Pluralism Project
This gives Hinduism several major spiritual approaches. Jnana emphasizes knowledge or insight. Bhakti emphasizes loving devotion to God. Karma yoga emphasizes disciplined action without attachment to the personal fruits of one’s actions. Other paths emphasize meditation and spiritual discipline. The Bhagavad Gita famously brings several of these approaches together.
There isn’t simply one Hindu road map to liberation.
Devotion and the Gods
Western descriptions of Hinduism sometimes become so fascinated with Brahman, Atman, and philosophical speculation that they accidentally make Hinduism sound like an Indian philosophy seminar. For millions of Hindus, religious life is intensely devotional.
This devotion is commonly called bhakti.
A worshiper may express deep love for Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama, or the Goddess. Hindu temples house sacred images called murtis, which aren’t understood by devotees simply as decorative statues. Through rituals of worship known as puja, offerings may be made using flowers, food, lamps, incense, water, prayers, and other elements. A particularly important concept is darshan—seeing and being seen by the deity represented and present through the sacred image. Pluralism Project
From the outside, someone may see a statue.
From inside the religious tradition, something considerably more significant is happening.
The Cow and Other Things Westerners Notice
We might as well address the cow.
Cows became deeply revered within Hindu culture and are associated with life, nourishment, generosity, and nonviolence. Many Hindus therefore don’t eat beef, and vegetarianism has an important place within several Hindu traditions. But Hindu dietary practices vary considerably, and not every Hindu is vegetarian.
The broader concept behind many Hindu attitudes toward living things is ahimsa, or nonviolence. The ideal became especially famous internationally through Mahatma Gandhi, although it has much older roots in Indian religious traditions and is particularly rigorous in Jainism.
Another familiar Hindu practice is yoga. In the modern West, yoga may mean an exercise class followed by a smoothie. Historically, Hindu traditions of yoga encompass disciplines involving the body, mind, meditation, ethics, consciousness, and spiritual liberation. The physical postures familiar in Western fitness culture represent only part of a much larger and more complicated history.
Hinduism and Christianity
Christianity and Hinduism are so different that comparison requires care. Christianity begins with one Creator who is distinct from creation, while Hindu traditions contain a range of understandings of ultimate reality and the divine. Christianity teaches one earthly life followed by resurrection and judgment; Hindu traditions generally work within the framework of karma, samsara, and repeated rebirth. Christianity understands humanity’s fundamental problem in terms of sin and alienation from God, while Hindu traditions commonly frame the problem in terms of karma, ignorance, attachment, and bondage to samsara.
Their understandings of salvation are consequently very different. Hindu traditions seek moksha, liberation from samsara. Christianity proclaims forgiveness, reconciliation with God, resurrection, and eternal life through Jesus Christ.
There are interesting points of contact. Hindu bhakti traditions can speak movingly about love and devotion toward God. Hindu philosophers have wrestled for centuries with questions about ultimate reality, human identity, morality, suffering, and the possibility of knowing what transcends ordinary experience. Christians shouldn’t dismiss those questions simply because Hindu answers differ from Christian ones.
But similarities in vocabulary shouldn’t disguise fundamentally different worldviews.
Jesus and Hinduism
Hindu responses to Jesus can be especially interesting because Hinduism doesn’t necessarily require someone to reject Jesus completely in order to remain Hindu. Some Hindus admire Jesus as a holy teacher. Others may understand Him as a guru, enlightened spiritual figure, or even interpret Him through Hindu categories that Christians themselves wouldn’t accept.
That can create a fascinating conversation.
A Christian telling a Hindu, “You need to believe in Jesus,” may occasionally receive something like, “I already do.”
The obvious next question is: What do you mean by Jesus?
Christianity doesn’t merely claim that Jesus possessed unusual spiritual insight or that He showed humanity one more path toward God. It claims that God acted uniquely and decisively in Jesus Christ—that the Word became flesh, that Christ died and rose bodily from the dead, and that reconciliation with God is found through Him.
The difference isn’t whether Jesus deserves admiration.
It’s who Jesus is.
Understanding Hinduism
Hinduism becomes much easier to understand once we stop trying to squeeze it into categories developed primarily for Western religions. It has no single founder, no single creed, no universally central institution, and no single understanding of God accepted by every Hindu. Yet across its enormous diversity, recurring ideas such as dharma, karma, samsara, moksha, devotion, sacred texts, and spiritual discipline give the traditions a recognizable family resemblance.
My old article described Hinduism as a “way of life” rather than merely a set of beliefs, and that instinct was worth keeping. Hinduism from 2015 What needed correcting was the temptation to turn one Hindu philosophical answer into the Hindu answer. The deeper you go into Hinduism, the more you discover Hindus arguing with other Hindus about what reality ultimately is and how human beings should relate to it.
For Christians, that makes Hinduism worth understanding rather than caricaturing. It asks enormous questions: What is ultimately real? What am I? Why do my actions matter? Why do we suffer? Is there something beyond the endless cycle of desire and dissatisfaction?
Christianity asks many of those same questions, but gives very different answers. And eventually our investigation arrives at the place it keeps arriving throughout Jew & Greek: the Christian claim that the answer to humanity’s deepest problem isn’t ultimately a principle, a state of consciousness, or liberation from another birth.
It’s a person.
Jesus Christ.