Jew & Greek | Initial A-Z Reference Glossary
Purpose. A concise reference for theological, biblical, historical, apologetic, and philosophical terminology used throughout Jew & Greek. Entries are intentionally brief: long enough to cover the main point and important distinctions, but not long enough to become articles. This glossary is designed to grow as new terminology appears in the 100 Questions project and elsewhere on the site.
184 initial entries
A
Adoptionism
A view of Christ that holds that Jesus was originally a human being who was later adopted or exalted by God to a unique divine status. Historic Christianity rejects adoptionism because the New Testament presents the Son as existing before His human birth and becoming human in the incarnation, rather than becoming the Son at some later point.
Allegorical Interpretation
An approach to interpretation that looks for a deeper spiritual meaning beyond the ordinary sense of a text. Allegory can be legitimate when the text itself signals it, but it becomes speculative when interpreters assign hidden meanings to details without textual support. See also: Exegesis, Hermeneutics, Typology.
Amillennialism
An interpretation of Revelation 20 that understands the thousand years symbolically rather than as a future literal thousand-year earthly reign following Christ’s return. Amillennialists generally identify the millennium with Christ’s present reign and expect His return, resurrection, final judgment, and the eternal state at the end of the present age.
Anabaptism
A movement arising during the Protestant Reformation that rejected infant baptism and taught that baptism should follow a personal profession of faith. The name means ‘rebaptizer,’ although Anabaptists did not consider their baptisms repetitions because they regarded infant baptism as invalid. Mennonites and Amish have important historical roots in the movement.
Anthropology (Theological)
The branch of theology concerned with human nature from a biblical and theological perspective. It includes questions about the image of God, body and soul or spirit, human freedom, mortality, sin, and humanity’s relationship to God. It is distinct from anthropology as the modern academic study of human cultures.
Antinomianism
The belief, or accusation, that Christians are not obligated to obey God’s moral law because they are saved by grace. The term literally means ‘against law.’ It has sometimes been used too broadly in theological disputes, so it is important to distinguish rejection of legalism from rejection of Christian moral responsibility.
Apocrypha
A collection of ancient Jewish writings included in some Christian Bibles but not in others. Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions accept various books from this literature as Scripture, while most Protestants distinguish them from the Old Testament canon. The writings remain historically important even for Christians who do not regard them as canonical.
Apologetics
The reasoned defense of a belief, especially the defense of the Christian faith against objections and competing claims. Christian apologetics may involve philosophy, history, science, biblical reliability, arguments for God’s existence, and evidence concerning Jesus and the resurrection. The word comes from the Greek apologia, meaning a defense or reasoned answer.
Apostasy
The abandonment or repudiation of a previously professed faith. In Christian theology, the term commonly refers to turning away from faith in Christ. Christians disagree over whether a genuine believer can ultimately apostatize. Apostasy should normally be distinguished from doubt, temporary spiritual weakness, or an individual act of sin.
Apostle
A person who is sent or commissioned. In the New Testament the term most importantly refers to the apostles of Christ, particularly the Twelve and Paul, who exercised foundational authority. It can also be used more broadly for other messengers or representatives, which contributes to disagreement over whether an apostolic ministry continues today.
Apostolic Fathers
A traditional designation for early Christian writings from roughly the late first and second centuries, shortly after the New Testament period. The collection commonly includes 1 Clement, the letters of Ignatius, the Didache, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Martyrdom of Polycarp. They are valuable sources for early Christian belief and practice but are not part of the New Testament.
Apostolic Succession
The belief that the authority and ministry given to the apostles have been transmitted through succeeding generations of church leadership, particularly through bishops. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and some other traditions give the idea an important role. Most Protestants emphasize continuity with apostolic teaching more than an unbroken line of episcopal ordination.
Arianism
A fourth-century teaching associated with Arius that denied that the Son is eternal and fully divine in the same sense as the Father. Arius regarded the Son as uniquely exalted but as having a beginning. The Council of Nicaea in AD 325 rejected this view and affirmed that the Son is of the same essence as the Father.
Arminianism
A Protestant theological tradition associated with Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants. Classical Arminianism emphasizes God’s grace while maintaining a genuine human response to grace and rejecting unconditional individual election as understood in Calvinism. Many Arminians also believe genuine believers can ultimately fall away, though Arminians have differed on that question.
Ascension
The bodily departure of the risen Jesus from His disciples and His exaltation to heaven, described especially in Acts 1:9-11. Christian theology connects the ascension with Christ’s heavenly reign, intercession, and the expectation of His return.
Atonement
The saving work of Christ by which sin is dealt with and humanity is reconciled to God, especially through Jesus’ death on the cross. The New Testament uses several images for this work, including sacrifice, reconciliation, redemption, victory, and substitution. Christians agree on its central importance while differing over theories explaining how it works.
Attributes of God
The qualities or perfections Christians use to describe who God is, such as holiness, love, justice, omniscience, omnipotence, and faithfulness. The attributes are not normally understood as separate pieces of God but as ways of describing the one divine nature.
B
Baptism
A Christian rite involving water and associated in the New Testament with repentance, faith, discipleship, union with Christ, and entry into the Christian community. Christians disagree over its mode, subjects, and precise relationship to salvation. Major practices include believer’s baptism and infant baptism, by immersion, pouring, or sprinkling.
Baptism in the Holy Spirit
A New Testament expression associated with the Holy Spirit’s work in believers. Pentecostal and many charismatic Christians commonly understand it as an empowerment distinct from or subsequent to conversion, while many other Christians identify it with the Spirit’s work of incorporating a person into Christ at conversion.
Bema Seat
A common term for the judgment seat of Christ, based on the Greek word bema, meaning a raised platform or judgment seat. Passages such as Romans 14:10 and 2 Corinthians 5:10 describe believers giving account before Christ. Christians differ over how this judgment relates to reward and final judgment.
Biblical Theology
The study of theological themes as they develop within the Bible itself, often tracing a theme through particular authors, books, covenants, or stages of redemptive history. It differs in method from systematic theology, which organizes biblical teaching by doctrinal topic.
Bibliology
The branch of systematic theology concerned with the Bible. It includes subjects such as revelation, inspiration, canon, authority, inerrancy, interpretation, transmission, and preservation of Scripture.
Bishop
A church leader or overseer. The Greek word episkopos means overseer. Christians disagree over whether bishop describes the same New Testament office as elder/pastor or a distinct office that developed above local elders. Episcopal traditions use bishop for a regional church leader.
C
Calvinism
A Protestant theological tradition shaped especially by John Calvin and later Reformed theology. It strongly emphasizes God’s sovereignty in salvation and is often summarized through doctrines such as total depravity, unconditional election, particular redemption, effectual grace, and perseverance of the saints, though Reformed theology is broader than those five points.
Canon
The recognized collection of writings received as Scripture. Christians speak of the Old Testament and New Testament canons. Questions about canon concern which books belong in Scripture and how the early Jewish and Christian communities recognized authoritative writings.
Canonization
The historical process by which particular writings came to be recognized as belonging to the biblical canon. Christians differ in how they describe the church’s role in that process: some speak of the church determining the canon, while others emphasize the church recognizing books that were already authoritative.
Cessationism
The view that some miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit, especially tongues, prophecy, and certain kinds of healing or miracles, were given primarily for the apostolic era and are no longer normally operative in the church. Cessationists differ over which gifts ceased and when.
Chalcedonian Definition
A statement produced by the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451 affirming that Jesus Christ is one person in two natures, fully divine and fully human, without confusion, change, division, or separation. It became a major standard of historic Christian Christology.
Charismatic Movement
A broad Christian movement emphasizing the present activity of spiritual gifts such as prophecy, healing, and speaking in tongues. Unlike classical Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement developed within many existing Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox traditions rather than forming one separate denomination.
Christology
The branch of theology concerned with the person and work of Jesus Christ. It includes His deity, humanity, incarnation, two natures, sinlessness, death, resurrection, ascension, offices, and saving work.
Christus Victor
An approach to the atonement emphasizing Christ’s victory over sin, death, Satan, and hostile spiritual powers. It is strongly represented in early Christian thought. Many Christians regard it as one biblical dimension of the atonement even when they also affirm substitutionary or other models.
Church Father
A traditional term for influential Christian teachers and writers of the early centuries of the church. The category is not precisely defined and does not imply that every Father agreed with every other Father. Their writings are important historical witnesses but are not treated as Scripture by most Christian traditions.
Compatibilism
The philosophical view that human choices can be genuinely voluntary even if those choices occur within a determined order. In theology, compatibilism is often used to explain how divine sovereignty and human responsibility can coexist. Critics argue that meaningful freedom requires the genuine ability to choose otherwise.
Complementarianism
The view that men and women are equal in value before God but have some different roles, especially in marriage and church leadership. Complementarians vary considerably over which roles are restricted and how authority should function. The contrasting position is commonly called egalitarianism.
Continuationism
The view that the spiritual gifts described in the New Testament, including prophecy, healing, miracles, and tongues, remain available to the church today. Continuationists differ over how frequently such gifts occur and how they should be practiced and evaluated.
Conversion
A person’s turning to God in faith and repentance. Christian traditions differ over how conversion relates in sequence to regeneration, baptism, and other aspects of salvation, but the term ordinarily refers to the human response involved in becoming a follower of Christ.
Cosmological Argument
A family of philosophical arguments for God’s existence that reason from the existence, contingency, or beginning of the universe to a cause or necessary foundation beyond it. Different versions include the kalam cosmological argument and arguments from contingency.
Council
A formal gathering of church leaders convened to address doctrinal, disciplinary, or organizational questions. Early ecumenical councils such as Nicaea and Chalcedon played major roles in defining Christian teaching about the Trinity and Christ.
Covenant
A binding relationship or arrangement involving promises and obligations. Covenants are central to the biblical story, including God’s covenants with Noah, Abraham, Israel, David, and the new covenant associated with Christ. Christian traditions differ over how the biblical covenants relate to one another.
Covenant Theology
A theological framework that understands Scripture and redemptive history primarily through God’s covenants. Reformed covenant theology commonly speaks of a covenant of works and covenant of grace, though formulations vary. It is often contrasted with dispensationalism.
Creed
A concise formal statement of belief used to summarize and confess important doctrines. The Apostles’ Creed and Nicene Creed are among the best-known Christian examples. Creeds are subordinate to Scripture in Protestant traditions but have historically served as guides to Christian orthodoxy.
D
Day of the Lord
A biblical expression referring to decisive divine intervention in judgment and salvation. In prophetic and New Testament contexts it can refer to historical acts of judgment, the return of Christ, final judgment, or the culmination of God’s purposes, depending on context.
Deacon
A church servant or officer. The Greek word diakonos means servant or minister. The New Testament describes deacons in passages such as 1 Timothy 3, but Christian traditions differ over the precise responsibilities and authority of the office and whether women may hold it.
Deism
The belief that God created the universe but does not ordinarily intervene in it through miracles or special revelation. Classical deism became influential during the Enlightenment and differs from historic Christianity’s belief in divine providence, revelation, and miraculous action.
Determinism
The view that every event or human choice is determined by prior causes or conditions. Forms of determinism can be physical, philosophical, or theological. The central debate concerns whether genuine moral responsibility and meaningful freedom can exist if choices are determined.
Deuterocanonical Books
A Roman Catholic term for Old Testament books accepted as canonical by Catholicism but not included in the Jewish Bible or most Protestant Old Testaments. Protestants commonly place these writings within what they call the Apocrypha. Orthodox canonical collections differ somewhat from the Catholic list.
Dispensationalism
A theological framework emphasizing distinct stages or administrations in God’s dealings with humanity and a continuing distinction between Israel and the church. Dispensationalists usually interpret biblical prophecy in a relatively literal manner and commonly hold a premillennial view of Christ’s return. Several forms of dispensationalism exist.
Docetism
An early view that denied or diminished the genuine humanity and physical suffering of Jesus, often treating His human appearance as only seeming or apparent. The name comes from a Greek word meaning ‘to seem.’ Historic Christianity rejects Docetism because the incarnation, death, and bodily resurrection require Christ’s real humanity.
Doctrine
A teaching or body of teaching. Christian doctrine is an organized statement of what Christians believe about subjects such as God, Christ, salvation, Scripture, and the church. The word does not necessarily mean a disputed or highly technical teaching.
Dualism
The view that reality contains two fundamentally different kinds of things or principles. In philosophy of mind, dualism commonly distinguishes mind from matter. In religion, stronger forms can portray good and evil as opposing cosmic principles. Christian theology affirms a distinction between Creator and creation without treating good and evil as equal eternal powers.
E
Ecclesiology
The branch of theology concerned with the church. It includes the nature and mission of the church, leadership, sacraments or ordinances, membership, discipline, worship, and the relationship between local and universal church.
Ecumenical Council
A council regarded as representing the wider Christian church rather than one local region. The first several ecumenical councils, including Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, were especially important in the development of Trinitarian and Christological doctrine.
Egalitarianism
In discussions of Christian ministry and marriage, the view that leadership roles should not be restricted on the basis of sex. Christian egalitarians generally argue that biblical restrictions reflected particular historical circumstances or should be interpreted in light of passages presenting women in ministry and the equality of believers in Christ.
Election
God’s choosing of people for a purpose or blessing. In discussions of salvation, Christians disagree over whether election is unconditional, conditioned on foreknown faith, corporate in Christ, or best understood through some combination of these ideas. The term also applies in Scripture to Israel and to individuals chosen for particular service.
Empiricism
The philosophical view that knowledge is derived primarily from sensory experience and observation. Strong forms of empiricism are skeptical of knowledge claims that cannot be traced to experience. In apologetics, empiricism raises questions about what kinds of evidence can support religious belief.
Epistemology
The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge: what knowledge is, how we acquire it, what justifies belief, and what the limits of human knowledge are. Questions about faith, evidence, reason, revelation, and certainty are partly epistemological questions.
Eschatology
The branch of theology concerned with last things. It includes death, the intermediate state, resurrection, the return of Christ, judgment, the millennium, heaven, hell, and the final state of creation. Premillennialism, amillennialism, and postmillennialism are major eschatological frameworks.
Essence
What something is at the level of its fundamental nature. In Trinitarian theology, Christians say that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct persons who share the one divine essence. The term helps distinguish the question ‘What is God?’ from ‘Who are the divine persons?’
Eternal Security
The teaching that a person who has truly been saved will never finally lose salvation. Christians who affirm it usually emphasize God’s preserving grace; others believe Scripture allows for genuine apostasy.
Evangelicalism
A broad Protestant movement emphasizing the authority of Scripture, the saving significance of Christ’s death and resurrection, personal conversion, and proclamation of the gospel.
Exegesis
The careful interpretation of a text with the goal of drawing its meaning from its language, context, history, and argument. It contrasts with eisegesis, which reads ideas into a text.
Expiation
The removal or dealing away of guilt or sin. In atonement discussions, expiation focuses on sin being removed, while propitiation focuses on dealing with divine judgment and restoring favor.
F
Faith
Trust, belief, or confidence. In Christian theology, saving faith is directed toward God and especially Jesus Christ and involves more than merely admitting that certain facts are true.
Fall of Humanity
The entrance of human sin and alienation into the biblical story through the disobedience of Adam and Eve in Genesis 3. Christian traditions differ over precisely how Adam’s sin affects his descendants.
Fallacy
An error in reasoning. Common fallacies include straw-man arguments, false dilemmas, ad hominem attacks, circular reasoning, and appeals to irrelevant evidence.
Federal Headship
The theological idea that one person can act as a representative head for others. It is commonly used to explain Adam’s relationship to humanity and Christ’s relationship to those united with Him.
Fideism
An approach that emphasizes faith independently of, or sometimes in opposition to, rational evidence or argument. The term covers a range of positions and is often used critically.
Foreknowledge
Knowledge of something before it occurs. In theology, God’s foreknowledge is discussed especially in relation to election, prophecy, human freedom, and divine omniscience.
Free Will
The capacity to make meaningful choices. Theological debates concern how human freedom relates to sin, grace, divine foreknowledge, sovereignty, and moral responsibility.
Fundamentalism
A movement that arose in early twentieth-century Protestantism in defense of doctrines regarded as fundamental to Christianity, especially in response to theological modernism. The term later acquired broader meanings.
G
General Revelation
Knowledge of God available through creation, human nature, conscience, and the general order of the world rather than through special prophetic or scriptural revelation.
Genre
A type of literature, such as narrative, poetry, prophecy, wisdom, gospel, epistle, or apocalypse. Recognizing genre helps readers interpret a text according to the kind of writing it is.
Gnosticism
A label for diverse ancient religious movements that emphasized saving knowledge and often held a negative view of the material world. Early Christian writers strongly opposed teachings they regarded as Gnostic.
Grace
God’s favor and benevolent action toward people who do not earn it. Christian theology especially associates grace with God’s initiative in salvation.
H
Hades
A Greek term used in the New Testament for the realm or state of the dead. Translating it simply as ‘hell’ can obscure distinctions between Hades and Gehenna, which is more directly associated with final punishment.
Hamartiology
The branch of theology concerned with sin, including its origin, nature, consequences, universality, guilt, corruption, and relationship to human freedom.
Hapax Legomenon
A word or expression that occurs only once in a particular body of literature. Such words can be difficult to define because there are fewer contexts available for comparison.
Heresy
A teaching judged to contradict a doctrine regarded as essential to the Christian faith. The term should be used carefully rather than as a label for every theological disagreement.
Hermeneutics
The study and principles of interpretation. Biblical hermeneutics considers language, context, genre, history, authorial intention, and the relationship of a passage to the rest of Scripture.
Historical Theology
The study of how Christian doctrines have been understood, debated, and developed through history, including theologians, councils, creeds, controversies, and movements.
Historicism
An approach to biblical prophecy, especially Revelation, that interprets prophetic visions as unfolding progressively through the course of church and world history.
Homoousios
A Greek term meaning ‘of the same essence’ or ‘of the same substance.’ Nicaea used it to affirm that the Son shares the same divine essence as the Father.
Hypostatic Union
The doctrine that Jesus Christ is one person with two complete natures, divine and human. The Chalcedonian Definition became the classic historic expression of this teaching.
I
Idealism (Revelation)
An approach to Revelation that understands many visions as symbolic portrayals of recurring spiritual realities rather than predictions tied primarily to one historical period.
Illumination
The work of the Holy Spirit in helping people understand, receive, and apply Scripture. It is distinguished from inspiration, which concerns the giving of Scripture itself.
Imago Dei
Latin for ‘image of God.’ It refers to Genesis 1:26-27 and the distinctive way human beings reflect, represent, or correspond to God.
Immanence
God’s nearness and active presence within creation. It is balanced with transcendence: God is present in the world without being identical with it.
Immutability
The doctrine that God is unchanging in His character, nature, and faithfulness. Theologians debate how this relates to biblical descriptions of God responding within history.
Imputation
The reckoning or crediting of something to another person’s account. The term appears in discussions of Adam’s sin, Christ’s righteousness, and justification.
Incarnation
The doctrine that the eternal Son of God truly became human in Jesus Christ without ceasing to be divine. John 1:14 summarizes it by saying that the Word became flesh.
Inerrancy
The teaching that Scripture, properly understood, is without error in what it affirms. Evangelical formulations commonly apply the term especially to the original writings.
Infallibility
The quality of being incapable of failing or misleading in the intended purpose. In Protestant theology it is often applied to Scripture’s trustworthiness and authority.
Inspiration
The divine action by which Scripture came to be written as God’s Word through human authors. Second Timothy 3:16 describes Scripture as ‘God-breathed.’
Intermediate State
The condition of human beings between physical death and bodily resurrection. Christians agree on future resurrection but differ over some details of the state of the dead before it.
J
Justification
God’s act of declaring or recognizing a sinner as righteous in relation to Himself. Protestant theology classically emphasizes justification by grace through faith apart from works as the basis of acceptance with God.
K
Kenosis
A term derived from Philippians 2:7, where Christ is said to have ’emptied himself.’ It concerns how the eternal Son humbled Himself in becoming human and living as a servant.
Kerygma
A Greek term meaning proclamation or preaching, often used for the core apostolic proclamation of Jesus’ death, resurrection, lordship, and the call to repentance and faith.
Kingdom of God
God’s reign or rule, a central theme in Jesus’ teaching. The New Testament presents the kingdom as already active in Jesus’ ministry while also awaiting future fulfillment.
L
Law and Gospel
A theological distinction between God’s commands and God’s saving promise in Christ. It is especially important in Lutheran theology but has parallels in other Protestant traditions.
Lectionary
A book or schedule of selected Scripture readings arranged for public worship. Ancient lectionary manuscripts are also witnesses used in biblical textual criticism.
Libertarian Free Will
The view that at least some choices are free in the sense that a person genuinely could choose otherwise under the same relevant conditions.
Logos
A Greek word meaning word, reason, message, or account depending on context. John 1 calls Christ the Logos, or Word, who was with God, was God, and became flesh.
M
Majority Text
A form of the Greek New Testament based primarily on readings found in the majority of surviving Greek manuscripts, most of which belong to the Byzantine textual tradition.
Manuscript
A handwritten copy of a text. Biblical manuscripts include scrolls, papyri, parchment codices, uncials, minuscules, and lectionaries and are central to the study of textual transmission.
Masoretic Text
The traditional Hebrew text of the Jewish Scriptures preserved by the Masoretes. It is the primary Hebrew basis for most modern Old Testament translations.
Materialism
The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally material or physical. Historic Christianity rejects strict materialism because it affirms God and a spiritual dimension to reality.
Messiah
A Hebrew-derived term meaning ‘anointed one.’ The Greek equivalent is Christ. The New Testament identifies Jesus as the promised Messiah.
Metaphysics
The branch of philosophy concerned with the most basic nature of reality, including existence, causation, identity, time, possibility, mind, and matter.
Millennium
The thousand-year reign described in Revelation 20. Christians disagree over whether it describes a future earthly reign or symbolically portrays Christ’s reign in the present age.
Minuscule
A Greek manuscript written in a smaller, flowing script that became common from roughly the ninth century onward. Thousands of New Testament minuscules survive.
Modalism
A view in which Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are different modes or manifestations of one divine person rather than eternally distinct persons. Historic Trinitarian Christianity rejects modalism.
Monergism
The view that the decisive work of bringing a sinner to spiritual life is accomplished by God alone rather than by cooperation between divine grace and an independently contributing human will.
Monotheism
Belief in one God. Christian Trinitarianism is monotheistic because Father, Son, and Holy Spirit share one divine being rather than constituting three gods.
N
Natural Law
The idea that moral truths are in some sense built into human nature and the created order and can be known through reason, conscience, or reflection on human flourishing.
Natural Theology
Reasoning about God from nature, human experience, and philosophy rather than relying solely on special revelation. Arguments from causation, design, morality, and contingency are examples.
Naturalism
The worldview that nature is all that exists, or that explanations should be limited to natural causes. Metaphysical naturalism denies supernatural reality.
Necessary Being
A being that cannot fail to exist and does not depend on anything else for existence. Classical philosophical arguments often describe God as the necessary foundation of contingent reality.
Nicene Creed
The historic Christian creed associated with Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381). It affirms one God, the full deity of the Son, the Holy Spirit, the incarnation, resurrection, and future hope.
O
Omnipotence
God’s unlimited power to accomplish all that is consistent with His nature and will. Logical contradictions are not normally regarded as genuine tasks that power could accomplish.
Omnipresence
God’s presence everywhere. The doctrine does not mean God is identical with the universe but that no place lies outside His presence and sustaining activity.
Omniscience
God’s complete knowledge of all truth. The doctrine includes God’s knowledge of creation, human thoughts and actions, and, in classical theology, the future.
Ontology
The branch of metaphysics concerned with being and existence: what kinds of things exist and what it means for something to be.
Open Theism
A view holding that some future free choices do not yet exist as settled facts to be known. Open theists use this model to emphasize genuine interaction between God and creatures.
Ordinance
A practice commanded or instituted by Christ for the church. Many Protestants use the term especially for baptism and the Lord’s Supper rather than sacrament.
Original Sin
The doctrine that humanity’s present sinful condition is connected to Adam’s first sin. Traditions differ over inherited guilt, corruption, and the precise way Adam’s sin affects his descendants.
Orthodoxy
Right or accepted belief. In Christian history it often refers to doctrine consistent with Scripture and the central teachings expressed in the historic creeds.
Orthopraxy
Right practice or conduct. It is often paired with orthodoxy to emphasize that Christian faith concerns faithful living as well as correct belief.
P
Panentheism
The view that the universe exists within God while God also exceeds the universe. It differs from pantheism, which identifies God with everything.
Pantheism
The belief that God and the universe are ultimately identical, or that everything is divine. Biblical theism instead distinguishes God as Creator from creation.
Papyrus
An ancient writing material made from the papyrus plant. Some of the earliest surviving New Testament manuscript fragments and codices are written on papyrus.
Parousia
A Greek word meaning presence, arrival, or coming. In Christian theology it commonly refers to the future coming or return of Jesus Christ.
Patristics
The study of the early Church Fathers and their writings, theology, controversies, and historical setting.
Pelagianism
A teaching associated with Pelagius that strongly emphasized human moral ability and denied or minimized inherited corruption in ways Augustine and later Western Christianity rejected.
Penal Substitution
An account of the atonement in which Christ bears the judicial consequences of human sin as a substitute for sinners. It is especially prominent in Reformed and evangelical theology.
Pentecostalism
A Christian movement emphasizing the present work and gifts of the Holy Spirit, including healing and speaking in tongues. Classical Pentecostals commonly teach a baptism in the Holy Spirit distinct from conversion.
Perseverance of the Saints
The Reformed doctrine that those truly regenerated and chosen by God will be preserved in faith to the end.
Person
In Trinitarian theology, a term used for the real distinctions of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit within the one divine being. It does not mean three separate gods.
Pneumatology
The branch of theology concerned with the Holy Spirit, including His deity and personhood, work in salvation, indwelling, sanctification, gifts, guidance, and empowerment.
Postmillennialism
The view that the gospel will experience extensive success in history, producing a long era of righteousness or Christian influence before Christ returns.
Postmodernism
A broad intellectual movement skeptical of universal explanations, claims to neutral objectivity, and some traditional accounts of reason and knowledge. The term covers many different thinkers and ideas.
Predestination
God’s determination beforehand of a destiny or purpose. Christians disagree over its basis, scope, and relationship to election, foreknowledge, grace, and human response.
Premillennialism
The view that Christ will return before the millennium of Revelation 20. Historic and dispensational forms share this expectation but differ on Israel, the church, and other details.
Preterism
An approach to prophecy holding that many passages commonly treated as future were fulfilled in first-century events, especially the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.
Prevenient Grace
Grace that comes before and enables a human response to God. The term is especially important in Wesleyan and Arminian theology.
Prophecy
Speech or revelation understood to be inspired by God. Biblical prophecy includes prediction but also proclamation, correction, warning, and encouragement.
Propitiation
A term used in atonement discussions for dealing with divine judgment and restoring favor between God and sinners. The biblical terms behind it must be interpreted in context.
Providence
God’s continuing preservation, governance, and care of creation. Christians differ over how specifically providence determines events and human choices.
Pseudepigrapha
A broad category of ancient writings attributed to biblical figures or written under revered names. Many are Jewish works from the Second Temple period and are valuable for historical context.
R
Rationalism
An approach to knowledge that gives a central role to reason and principles known independently of sensory experience. In theology the term can be descriptive or critical depending on context.
Reconciliation
The restoration of a broken relationship. In Christian theology it refers especially to God’s work in Christ overcoming the alienation between sinful humanity and God.
Redemption
Deliverance or liberation, often expressed through the image of release by payment of a price. The New Testament applies redemption language to Christ’s saving work.
Regeneration
The giving of new spiritual life, commonly associated with the biblical language of new birth. Traditions differ over its relationship to faith, baptism, and conversion.
Relativism
The view that truth, morality, or knowledge is relative to individuals, cultures, or conceptual schemes rather than universally valid. Different forms of relativism should be carefully distinguished.
Repentance
A turning of mind, heart, and direction involving recognition of sin and turning toward God. Biblical repentance is more than feeling regret.
Resurrection
The raising of the dead to embodied life. Christianity centers on Jesus’ bodily resurrection and expects a future resurrection of the dead.
Revelation
God’s making Himself or His truth known. General revelation refers to knowledge through creation; special revelation refers to more particular divine disclosure, especially Scripture and Christ.
S
Sacrament
A sacred rite understood as a means or sign of divine grace. Christian traditions differ over how many sacraments there are and what they accomplish.
Sanctification
Being set apart for God and made holy. The New Testament can describe believers as already sanctified while also presenting an ongoing process of moral and spiritual transformation.
Second Coming
The future return of Jesus Christ. Historic Christianity expects Christ to return personally, though Christians disagree over the sequence of events surrounding His return.
Septuagint
The ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, commonly abbreviated LXX. It was widely used among Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians.
Sheol
A Hebrew term in the Old Testament associated with the realm or condition of the dead. Its precise nuance varies by passage.
Sola Fide
Latin for ‘faith alone.’ A Reformation principle teaching that sinners are justified before God through faith apart from works as the basis of justification.
Sola Scriptura
Latin for ‘Scripture alone.’ The Protestant principle that Scripture is the supreme and final infallible authority for Christian doctrine.
Soteriology
The branch of Christian theology concerned with salvation, including grace, atonement, faith, repentance, justification, regeneration, sanctification, perseverance, and glorification.
Sovereignty of God
God’s supreme authority and rule over creation. Christians broadly affirm sovereignty but disagree over how it relates to human freedom, evil, prayer, and providence.
Substance
A philosophical and theological term for underlying reality or being. In Trinitarian theology it was used to affirm the one divine being shared by Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Synergism
The view that divine grace and human response cooperate in some aspect of salvation. Synergistic traditions generally insist that the human response is enabled by grace rather than earning salvation.
Systematic Theology
The organized study of Christian doctrine by topic, drawing material from across Scripture and often interacting with philosophy, history, and previous theological reflection.
T
Teleological Argument
A family of arguments for God’s existence based on order, purpose, fine-tuning, or apparent design in nature.
Textual Criticism
The study of manuscript evidence in order to identify, as closely as possible, the earliest recoverable wording of a text. It is not the same thing as criticizing the Bible’s theology.
Textual Variant
A difference in wording among manuscript copies of a text. Variants can involve spelling, word order, omitted words, substitutions, or larger passages.
Textus Receptus
A printed form of the Greek New Testament developed from editions beginning in the sixteenth century. It underlies the New Testament of the King James Version.
Theism
Belief in God or gods, though in philosophy the term often refers especially to belief in a personal God who created and sustains the world.
Theodicy
An attempt to explain how belief in a good and powerful God can be reconciled with the existence of evil and suffering.
Theology
The disciplined study of God and matters related to God. Christian theology includes Scripture, God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, humanity, salvation, the church, and last things.
Transcendence
God’s distinction from and superiority over creation. Christian theology balances transcendence with immanence: God is beyond creation while also present and active within it.
Transfiguration
The event in which Jesus’ appearance was transformed before Peter, James, and John and His glory was revealed, recorded in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9.
Trinity
The doctrine that the one God eternally exists as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The three are distinct persons, not three gods, and each is fully divine.
Typology
A way of reading Scripture in which earlier persons, events, institutions, or patterns correspond to and anticipate later realities in God’s redemptive work.
U
Uncial
A manuscript written in large, separate capital-style Greek letters. Major New Testament codices such as Sinaiticus and Vaticanus use majuscule or uncial script.
Universalism
The belief that all people will ultimately be saved or reconciled to God. Historic mainstream Christianity has generally rejected universal salvation and affirmed final judgment.
V
Virgin Birth
The teaching that Jesus was conceived in Mary by the Holy Spirit without a human father, based especially on Matthew 1 and Luke 1.
W
Worldview
A basic framework of beliefs and assumptions through which a person interprets reality, including beliefs about existence, knowledge, morality, humanity, and meaning.
Worship
The honoring, revering, and serving of God. Biblical worship includes praise and gathered services but also prayer, obedience, thanksgiving, proclamation, and the orientation of life toward God.